Role of Traditional Medicine in Third World Countries

Role of Traditional Medicine in Third World Countries Overview According to the National Aboriginal Health Organisation (NAHO, 2003), the term traditional was introduced by the British during the colonial era and often rejected by many indigenous peoples. Authorities in the industrialised world used the term traditional medicine to distinguish between Western medicine and medical knowledge and practices that were local to indigenous tribes in Africa, South East Asia and other parts of the third world. Today traditional medicine is also referred to as Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) (Shaikh Hatcher, 2005). Chronic social, economic and political problems in many third world countries means that the vast majority of their populations have little or no access to modern medical resources. By contrast, traditional medicine is often available to the masses and may constitute the only available health care resource. This essay discusses the role of traditional medicine as an essential resource in the third world, with specific reference to Nigeria and Pakistan. Traditional Medicine There is no universally accepted and unambiguous definition of traditional medicine, largely because of differences in culture, language, and medical products and practices across the third world. However, the World Health Organisation defines traditional medicine as health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal and mineral based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises, applied singularly or in combination to treat, diagnose and prevent illnesses or maintain well-being (WHO, 2003). Traditional medicine generally refers to any medicinal knowledge and practices that arent within the domain of modern day Western medicine. Like modern medicine the ultimate goal of the traditional healer is to improve the well being of individuals who present with some undesirable physical or psychological malady (Shaikh Hatcher, 2005). However, traditional medicine is unique in that improvements in well-being may incorporate spiritual healing, an d whereas western medicine largely relies on science-based knowledge and procedures, traditional medicine is based on local rituals, herbs, and superstitions indigenous to the local community (NAHO, 2003). Traditional medicine may incorporate different fields of expertise. NAHO (2003) identifies several types of specialists, including the spiritualist, herbalist, medicine man/woman, and healer. Spiritualists specialise in spiritual healing, for example by communicating with dead ancestors and performing ritualised sacrifices (e.g. killing a chicken). They often enjoy a certain degree of authority within local communities, serving as mentors for individuals or families. Herbalists are perhaps equivalent to pharmacists and pharmacologists in western medicine. They are experts on the medicinal properties of local plants and are typically called upon to prepare various medicinal concoctions to cure specific ailments. Such preparations may be in the form of a meal, drink, or even special soap for bathing. Healers are individuals with a natural talent for healing, often through spiritual or other means, perhaps similar to the psychic in Western society. Indeed, there seems to be a high degre e of overlap between healers, and spiritualists, albeit this is debatable and culture-specific. Finally, the medicine man/woman is a traditional healer usually involved in ceremonial activity, such as a funeral. They often carry a lot of material effects, such as mysterious ‘bundles’, bones, and other effects. Chronic shortages of modern health care resources in the third world has led to renewed interest in the role that CAM could play in reducing premature morbidity and mortality. Health care in the third word Populations living in third world countries are plagued by a variety of health problems. These include childbirth problems such as low birth weight (Arif Arif, 1999), nutritional problems, notably malnutrition, hypoglycaemia and hypothermia (Bhan et al, 2003), kidney disease (SantaCruz, 2003), degenerative psychiatric illnesses such as Hodgkin’s disease (Hu et al, 1988), hypertension (Galie Rubin, 2004), tobacco-related illness (Tomlinson, 1997), and so on. The prevailing economic, political, social and environmental conditions arent ideal for maintaining good health (Cooper, 1984). Socio-economic inequalities caused by flawed economic policies and political corruption has meant that modern medicine is beyond the reach of the suffering masses. Environmental decadence manifests in poor sanitary conditions, itself a result (at least in part) of weak economic infrastructure, and political leadership. Governments in many third world countries often spend only a fraction of their gross domestic product (GDP) on health care, so that there is a chronic shortage of both primary and secondary health resources such as clinics, hospitals, staff, and drugs. Health care policies are either absent, inadequate or poorly implemented. Lack of adequate funding stifles research and development, not withstanding positive side effects like increased creativity (Coloma Harris, 2004). These deplorable conditions have persisted despite massive financial investment by the World Bank. The organisation pays out an estimated $28 billion annually to third world countries, some of which is meant be used for the development of adequate health infrastructure (Pinker, 2000). But this has had little effect, partly because of government corruption, political instability, and crippling national debts. Moreover, technological change is so rapid that investment in essential medical equipment is not viable, unless there is a regular cash flow to finance replacements (Coloma Harris, 2004). Much has been written about the problem of ‘brain drain’ in which locally trained professionals flee their under-resourced and decaying health care systems to take up more lucrative jobs abroad (Fisher, 2003; Latif, 2003; Levy, 2003). Then there is the capitalist constraint. Private companies in the West that provide health services, pharmaceuticals, equipment, and other medical re sources need to make a profit to stay in business. This means selling products to their clients (governments, health service organisations, the general public) at a cost-effective price, which third world countries simply cannot afford. Getting private companies to sell their health services and products at a loss, for example by provide cheap or free drugs, often requires government intervention and corporate will (Enserink, 2000), both of which are often lacking. In the midst of such adversity traditional medicine may provide the only viable source of health care. Nigeria Modern health care in Nigeria incorporates primary care provided by local government and privately owned clinics, secondary care dispensed by hospitals, and tertiary services (e.g. orthopaedics, psychiatry) provided by specialist hospitals (WHO, 2002-2007). Like many third world countries the health infrastructure is severely under funded, with chronic equipment and staff shortages (Kadiri, 2005). Brain drain is a constant problem (Levy, 2003), and adequate health care is expensive and hence beyond the reach of the masses (WHO, 2002-2007). Traditional medicine operates side-by-side with modern health care. Most Nigerians have access to traditional healers, or medicine men’, especially in the rural areas where people lack local health infrastructure and transportation to travel to the nearest clinic or hospital. Thus, CAM is the only health resource available to most Nigerians (Mpyet et al, 2005). Nigeria is actually a melting pot of over 300 different tribes[1], with remarkabl y different languages, cultures, lifestyles, religions and traditional governments (at local level). Thus, the practice of traditional medicine is quite varied across the country. Nevertheless, most medicine men are considered experts in the preparation and administration of various herbal medicines, and the prognosis for patients is often good. The use of herbal drugs remains very popular, especially amongst the older generation and/or less educated. Recent evidence suggests that some Nigerians are suspicious of modern medical procedures and consequently fail to utilise services to which they have access. Raufu (2002) and Pincock (2004) both document a recent health crises in northern Nigeria in which parents refused to get their kids vaccinated against poliomyelitis. There was considerable scepticism about the vaccination campaign, with many parents fearing their children may become infected with the HIV, or worse become infertile, irrespective of what the health officials said. This incident seems to mirror a subtle nation-wide cultural shift towards traditional medicine. For example, there have been calls for traditional healers to be involved in making referrals to secondary care services, along side professional medical doctors (Mpyet et al, 2005). The WHO has specifically encouraged research on traditional medicine in Nigeria, and the National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development (NIPRD), located in Abuja, the capital city, has been identified as a possible location for such research. The NIPRD was set up to conduct research projects designed to improve, refine, and modernise traditional medicine, especially in terms of herbal remedies. The institute has successfully developed some herbal medicines including NIPRD AM-1, a herbal extract for treating malaria. In other parts of the country steps have been taken to blend traditional medicine with modern medical procedures. The Fantsuam Foundation (IHDC, 2003), a womens group founded in 1996 and based in northern Nigeria with over 80,000 members, was set up to help rural women fight their way out of poverty. This organisation is not profit oriented, works in collaboration with local government, and uses modern computer resources, such as electronic commerce. The foundation recognises the value of CAM especially amongst women living in poor communities, and works to reconcile traditional practices with modern medicine. Women in this part of the country are plagued by a variety of health problems ranging from minor ailments (e.g. back pains) to more serious conditions (e.g. HIV/AIDS). Thus, there is an ever-present demand for appropriate health care. Traditional healers are very active, using various emollients and herbs to treat patients. More encouragingly, the Foundations’ work in th e community has highlighted several interesting points concerning the modernisation of traditional medicine. These include the following; Some aspects of traditional medicine can be improved for better health service provision; Traditional healers are open to modernisation initiatives provided there is a sense of partnership and intellectual property rights are protected; Traditional medicine as a body of knowledge can be preserved while simultaneously opening it up to reforms. Overall, the value of traditional medicine as a widely available health resource is universally recognised in Nigeria. Pakistan Pakistan like other third world countries suffers from an under funded and under-resourced modern health care system. Poverty-related health problems are rife, including low birth weight (Bhutta et al, 2004), hepatitis (Yusufzai, 2004), sexually transmitted diseases (Wallerstein, 1998) and high infant mortality and malnutrition (Abbasi, 1999). The health care system is dichotomised into the public and private sectors. The former incorporates a mixture of mostly unregulated private hospitals, clinics, and traditional healers, while the public sector is made up of government run hospitals, mostly in very poor condition (Shaikh Hatcher, 2005). Overall, Pakistan’s health service system does not compare favourably with its neighbours. Poverty, illiteracy and poor sanitation, as well as political instability compound the problem, with infant mortality and infectious disease particularly problematic (Abbasi, 1999; Zaidi et al, 2004). Historically CAM has been a permanent part of the health care landscape in Pakistan, practised in the form of Unani, Ayurvedic and homeopathic systems (Shaikh Hatcher, 2005). Unani medicine entails the use of natural resources normally found in the body, such as clean and fresh water, whereas Ayurveda remedies are sensitive to a womans natural rhythms and cycles. There is particular emphasis in Pakistan on the use of plant-based traditional medicines, albeit animal based products are sometimes used. In the midst of chronic and widespread socio-economic deprivation more and more Pakistanis are turning to traditional healers for their health care (Shaikh Hatcher, 2005). Local ‘hakeems’, religious leaders and medicine men regularly dispense traditional therapies. These individuals enjoy considerable public trust and respect, especially in the rural areas, and patients regularly present with a wide range of medical conditions including gynaecological problems. According to Jafry (1999) traditional medicine was officially acknowledged in Pakistan under the Unani, Ayurvedic and Homeopathic Practitioners’ Act of 1965. The practice of homeopathy in particular has become well established, with increases in the number of homeopathic (privately owned) schools, especially after the Homeopathic Board and National Council for Homeopath y (NCH) was set up. Currently there is an abundance of homeopathic clinics, pharmaceutical companies, and other related organisations in Pakistan. Interestingly, despite these advances Pakistan continues to import homeopathic medicines in large quantities and local drug prices remain high. Consequently many Pakistanis cannot afford homeopathic treatment. Like the modern health care system which is heavily under funded ((Abbasi, 1999), homeopathic medicine remains crippled by under investment (Jafry, 1999). Despite these drawbacks, CAM as a whole remains more accessible than modern health resources, and constitutes an indispensable resource for the vast majority of the population (Shaikh Hatcher, 2005). Exploitation NAHO (2003) has identified a number of important concerns that need to be recognised if CAM is to be successfully integrated with modern medicine in developing nations. Firstly it is essential to recognise the important role played by the elderly, who form the bulk of spiritual healers and medicine men. Less common in Western culture, high reverence for elders in many third world countries is a major reason traditional medicine enjoys considerable public endorsement. Secondly, there is the risk of exploitation by unscrupulous western private enterprise. In particular it would be wholly inappropriate in a cash economy for a private pharmaceutical company, concerned about making a quick profit, to offer symbolic but worthless gifts to a traditional healer in return for valuable knowledge on local medicines, ointments and herbs. Thirdly, there is the issue of intellectual property rights. These must be protected under any circumstances, again to avoid unfair exploitation and profiteerin g by private companies. Health care funding provided to third world governments by the WHO, World Bank, and other financial organisations should be conditional on the establishment and implementation of satisfactory protective policies. For example independent (e.g. WHO) officials can be used to supervise contracts that are drawn up between private enterprises and traditional healer groups. Conclusions As early as 1984 Cooper argued that Western medicine might not really be suitable for the third world (Cooper, 1984). Despite the rapid spread of modern medicine CAM remains an indispensable resource for providing adequate health care to the majority of individuals living in these countries. Socio-economic and political problems have severely limited access to modern health care. However, considerable progress has being made towards harness the potential of traditional medicine, for example by allowing traditional healers to make hospital referrals. Both the WHO and World Bank seem committed to promoting the development of CAM. Given the complexity and variability of health provision across the third world it may be necessary to tailor health care reform to the peculiar requirements of each country (Buch, 2005). Traditional medicine is firmly rooted in local culture and customs (NAHO, 2003), and therefore traditional health protocols cannot be generalised across nations. Additionally , concerns about equality, protection rights, and other ethical issues need to be addressed. References Abbasi, K. (1999) The World Bank and world health Focus on South Asia II: India and Pakistan British Medical Journal, 318, pp.1132-1135 Arif, M.A. Arif, K. (1999) Low birthweight babies in the third world: maternal nursing versus professional nursing care, Journal of Tropical Paediatrics, 45, pp.278 – 280. Bhan, M.K., Bhandari, N. Bahl, R. (2003) Management of the severely malnourished child: perspective from developing countries. British Medical Journal, 326, pp.146 151 Bhutta, Z.A., Khan, I., Salat, S., Raza., F. Ara, H. (2004) Reducing length of stay in hospital for very low birthweight infants by involving mothers in a stepdown unit: an experience from Karachi (Pakistan). British Medical Journal, 329, pp.1151 1155 Buch, E. (2005) The future of health care in Africa. British Medical Journal. 331, pp.1-2. Coloma, J. Harris, E. (2004) Innovative low cost technologies for biomedical research and diagnosis in developing countries. British Medical Journal, 329, pp.1160- 1162 Cooper, J.A.D. (1984) Health resources: the United States and the third world, Health Affairs, 3, pp.149 151 Enserink, M. (2000) Group urges action on third world drugs. Science, 287, p.1571 Fisher, J.P. (2003) Third world brain drain: Brain drain must be halted. British Medical Journal. 327, p.930. Galie, N. Rubin, L.J. (2004) Introduction: new insights into a challenging disease: A review of the third world symposium on pulmonary arterial hypertension. Journal of American College of Cardiology, 43 (12 Suppl S): 1S. Jafry, S.A.A. (1999) Homeopathy in Pakistan [online]. The Homeo Webzine. Available from: http://www.geocities.com/pulsnet2000/homeopak.htm>[Accessed 5 March 2006]. Kadiri, S. (2005) Tackling cardiovascular disease in Africa. British Medical Journal, 331, pp.711-712. Hu, E., Hufford, S., Lukes, R., Bernstein-Singer, M., Sobel, G., Gill, P., Pinter- Brown, L., Rarick, M., Rosen, P. Brynes, R. (1988) Third-World Hodgkins disease at Los Angeles County-University of Southern California Medical Center Journal of Clinical Oncology, 6, pp.1285 1292. IHDC (2003) Local health content in Nigeria blends tradition and science. Johannesburg: IHDC. Latif, A.S. (2003) Third world brain drain: Causes of exodus need to be examined and rectified. British Medical Journal, 327, p.930. Levy, L.F. (2003) The first worlds role in the third world brain drain. British Medical Journal, 327, p.170 Mpyet, C, Dineen, B.P., Solomon, A.W. (2005) Cataract surgical coverage and barriers to uptake of cataract surgery in leprosy villages of north eastern Nigeria. British Journal of Ophthalmology, 89, pp.936-938. NAHO (2003) Traditional Medicine in Contemporary Context: Protecting and Respecting Indigenous Knowledge and Medicine. Ottawa, ON: NAHO. Pincock, S. (2004) Poliovirus spreads beyond Nigeria after vaccine uptake drops. British Medical Journal. 328, p.310 Pinker, S. (2000) Banking on the Third World. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 163, p.94 Raufu, A. (2002) Polio cases rise in Nigeria as vaccine is shunned for fear of AIDS British Medical Journal, 324, p.1414. SantaCruz, P.L. (2003) Preventing end-stage kidney disease: a personal opinion from the Third World. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 18, p.2453. Shaikh, B.T. Hatcher, J. (2005) Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Pakistan: Prospects and Limitations. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2, pp.139–142. Tomlinson, R. (1997) Smoking death toll shifts to third world British Medical Journal, 315, pp.563 568 Wallerstein, C. (1998) Pakistan lags behind in reproductive health. British Medical Journal. 317, p.1546 WHO (2003) Country Press Releases: WHO encourages Research into Traditional Medicine. Geneva: WHO. WHO (2002-2007) WHO Country Cooperation Strategy: Federal Republic of Nigeria. Geneva. WHO Zaidi, K.M., Awasthi, S. deSilva, H.J. (2004) Burden of infectious diseases in South Asia. British Medical Journal, 328, pp.811 – 815. Yusufzai, A (2004) Pakistan medical association warns of potential rise in hepatitis British Medical Journal. 329, p.530. 1 Footnotes [1] There are three major tribes; The Hausa, Ibo, and Yoruba.

Overpopulation Is Caused by Poverty Essay

Bangladesh is one of the poor countries with one of the highest population of the world. Is the country poor because of the huge number of people or the poverty itself is the reason behind the overpopulation? To answer this question, I have looked at the overall development condition and population of the world and tried to find the missing links between the two. First I presented some facts about world population and demography. Then I analyzed the Malthusian and Marxist views on population. I talked about the existing views that considered population growth as the main reason behind poverty. Then I discussed my arguments about those view and discussed how population growth is not the primary cause of low standard of living, gross inequalities or limited freedom choice that characterize much of the developing world. I tried to find the main reasons behind the impoverishment of the poor countries and how those lead to overpopulation. Background: Human race came into existence around 2 billion years ago. Agricultural Revolution took place about 10,000 years ago when people used to hunt and gather food. At that time the estimated world population was about 4 million. The population started to grow significantly after the agricultural revolution. However, the most dramatic population growth occurred after the Industrial Revolution in 1750s. The world population was approaching one billion people and was increasing by more than two million every year. This dramatic population growth is termed population explosion because within less than 300 years the number of people mushroomed to more than 6 billion whereas before this, world population grew very slowly for millions of years. At this very moment, nearly 7 billion people are sharing this planet. By 2050, the population is expected to reach 9 billion. The world population is very unevenly distributed by geographic region, fertility and mortality levels and age structure. Here we also have to consider the term demographic transition: transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates. Most of the developing countries are in stage two and the developed countries in stage three. So in the developing countries, though death rate has dropped significantly due to improvement in medicine and health care, fertility rate remains high. So population growth is highest in the developing and poor countries. Existing literature: Now the question is why birth rates are so high in the developing countries? In 1798, Thomas Malthus proposed a theory that determines the relationship between population growth and economic development. According to him, the poor countries are poor because of the population growth. Eliminate the population problem and the problem of poverty will be solved by itself. To eliminate the extra people, positive and preventive checks are necessary. Positive checks are famine, natural disasters, war etc which according to him is a good way to get rid of the unnecessary people who are burden to the society. Preventive checks would be only moral restrain because birth controls were considered as sins according to the Catholic Church. Malthus was not aware of the technological progress that would occur and thus he came up with the theory that food production will not be able to keep up with the population growth. Thus the solution was to get rid of the poor people. Karl Marx saw the Malthusian point of view as an outrage against humanity. Marx pinpointed the fact that with technological progress, there would be more production. So capital would be increasing too. However, the few capitalist who own all the resources exploit the poor workers and keep them poor. So poverty is the result of a poorly organized capitalist society where there is no equal distribution of wealth. From the Marxist point of view, overpopulation is not the reason behind slow economic growth and development. Though the theory of Malthus is much criticized and controversial, his ideas are still remaining in the present world. Many theorists and economists see the reduction of population growth through severe measures as the easiest way of ensuring economic prosperity in a developing country. According to them, unrestrained population increase is the main reason behind low standard of living, malnutrition, ill health, environmental degradation, and many other economic and so cial problems. There is a theory known as ‘population-poverty cycle’. This theory states that overpopulation makes the economic, social, and psychological problems more complicated. As more children are born every day, there is less savings rate per person in the household and national level. Because of the uncontrolled population growth, the government fails to provide the basic necessities for the additional people. This leads to low living standard of the existing generation and eventually poverty is transferred to the next generation. At present China is the most populous country in the world with a number of 1.34 billion. This country has undertaken one of the most harsh and coercive population control policies in the early 1980s- one child per family policy. Though this policy dramatically reduced the growth rate, is caused many socio-economic problems and controversies. However, the decline in the fertility rate in China through one child policy is less successful than approaches based on women empowerment and education in some parts of India, such as the state of Kerala. This shows us that population no longer remains a problem even though there is slow economic growth by focusing on empowering people, especially women. Defending my thesis: My thesis is that poverty causes overpopulation and to solve both the problems, other issues are needed to be taken care of. One of the main causes that keep poor countries and poor people poor is unequal distribution of wealth and natural resources. The developed countries consist of one quarter of the world’s population but consume almost 80% of the world resources. In 2005, the wealthiest 20% of the world accounted for 76.6% of total private consumption. The poorest 20% consumed just 1.5%. When one child is born in a developed country, the amount of money and resources spend behind it is equivalent to 16 children in the developing countries. Therefore the developed countries should cut back their very high consumption instead of asking developing countries to control their population growth. However they do not do that in an attempt to hold down the development of the poor countries to continue dominance over them and to maintain the very expensive living style. So they mad e population growth the main reason behind poverty to distract everyone from the real reasons. They pressurize the poor nations to adopt aggressive population control programs even though they themselves went through a period of sizable population increase that accelerated their own development processes. So as the LDCs are kept poor, no or less development occurs and thus generates overpopulation. Also a huge amount of resources are hold idle. For example, only 12% of all the potential arable land is under cultivation. So the land actually being cultivated amounts only a fraction of its potential. According to one web resource- ‘Enough arable land exists in India to give each person in the country approximately half an acre. In famine-ravaged Ethiopia, each person could have three-quarters of an acre of arable land. Africa, the poorest continent, has 20.2% of the world’s land area, and only 13% of its population. North America has a whopping 2.1 acres of arable land per person!’ So many areas with potential resources are under populated and many small areas (urban areas in the LDCs) are concentrated with too many people. This unequal distribution of people in terms of land causes poverty rather than the population growth. Underdevelopment itself is a huge problem. If the governments of the developing countries adopt correct strategies that promote higher levels of living, greater self-esteem and expanded freedom, population will take care of itself. If people are healthy and better educated, they will themselves be aware of the fact that smaller families are better than larger families. On the other case, if they are uneducated and physically and psychologically weak, the large family will be the only real source of social security. So the birth control programs and severe child control policies will be unsuccessful if there is no motivation to empower and enlighten the people, especially the women. If the women have equal roles and status like the men and have access to birth control, fertility rate will fall by itself. However, the richest people of the developing countries consume most of the resources and deprive the rest of the people of their daily necessities. As the poor people are kept poor they fail to get educated and empowered which leads to low quality of life and overpopulation. Conclusion: Overpopulation is not the main cause behind poverty. It is the other way around. However, fast population growth is not desirable too. So in order to develop, countries like Bangladesh need to adopt policies that focus on making people aware of the ways to keep the family small. The consequences of rapid population should neither be exaggerated nor minimized. However, it is pretty clear problem of population is not simply a problem of huge number. It is about quality of life and material well being. So if there is not equal distribution of wealth, idle resources, and subordination of women, poor countries and poor people would remain poor and this will lead to the problem of overpopulation. References: Todaro, Michael P. and Smith, Stephen C. (2009). Economic Development. Ninth Edition. Addison-Wesley. Weeks, J.R. (2012). Population: An Introduction to Concepts and Issues. 11th edition. California: Wadsworth Publishing. http://www.henrygeorge.org/popsup.htm http://www.globalissues.org/issue/2/causes-of-poverty https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html

Religion and Bioethics Physician Assisted Suicide, a...

The article I read examined the link between bioethics and religion in regards to Physician-Assisted Suicide/Euthanasia. Specifically, it made an obvious point of defining the distinction between killing and letting one die. In addition, it focused on the link between Faith and Reason, the development of tradition throughout history, modern statements on this ethical dilemma, and then drew conclusions based upon these analyses. These are all significant points to consider when attempting to determine the morality of physician-assisted suicide/euthanasia. In order to fully understand the â€Å"euthanasia debate,† it is crucial to look at our two main theoretical camps: deontological or â€Å"Kantian† ethics, and teleological or â€Å"utilitarian†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦show more content†¦That is, that everyone affected is to be considered equally. This feature alone makes it possible for actions to be declared moral based upon their consequences without taking motives into question. The best way to illustrate this key difference between deontological and teleological theories is by examining Philippa Foot’s trolley problem. Overall, this illustration attempts to clarify under what circumstances it would be morally just for one person to violate the rights of another for the purpose of benefiting the group. In doing so it helps one essentially justify harming someone in order to benefit the group/larger number of persons. It is able to do this by assigning equal utility to those involved. In doing so, this shows the practical nature of Utilitarianism, and how it is â€Å"content heavy† – making very evident the right way to make decisions. Inevitably, the opposing side to this argument (deontologists) refute this way of thinking by arguing that it could very easily lead us to â€Å"repugnant conclusions;† which in theory could be used to justify almost any action if the consequences of the situation worked out just right. 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Analysis Of Gilman s Yellow Wall Paper Essay

â€Å"An atheist may be simply one whose faith and love are concentrated on the impersonal aspects of God† (Weil, n.d.). Just like the narrator’s husband, who believes in facts and not in faith. His faithless actions cause him to isolate and imprison his wife. By isolating and imprisoning his wife, she finds a means of escape by using her imagination and obsesses over the yellow wallpaper. In the â€Å"Yellow Wall-paper,† Gilman use characterization to suggest that when a depressed wife is isolated and imprisoned by her faithless husband, her only way of escape is her obsessive imagination towards the wallpaper. In Gilman’s story, we see the narrator’s point of view of her husband as she characterizes her husband as faithless which causes him to use a treatment that is not helping his wife. In the beginning, we see the narrator’s description of her spouse, John, as a practical thinker, preferring the facts instead of faith, for example, â€Å"John is practical in the extreme. He has no patience with faith, an intense horror of superstition, and he scoffs openly at any talk of things not to be felt and seen and put down in figures† (Gilman, 2016, p. 60). This quote is the perfect example of John being faithless or having â€Å"no patience with faith,† it also states that John is a practical thinker in the â€Å"extreme,† only believing in what can be seen, felt, or put as a figure. With John having this mindset he doesn’t want to hear his wife’s point of view and his profession prevents him to hearShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Yellow W allpaper By Charlotte Perkins Gilman1269 Words   |  6 Pages1002-63639 15 February 2017 Analysis of â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† Life during the 1800s for a woman was rather distressing. Society had essentially designated them the role of being a housekeeper and bearing children. They had little to no voice on how they lived their daily lives. Men decided everything for them. To clash with society s conventional views is a challenging thing to do; however, Charlotte Perkins Gilman does an excellent job fighting that battle by writing â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper,† one of theRead MoreAnalysis Of The Yellow Wall Paper1699 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"You think you have mastered it, but just as you get well underway in following, it turns a back-somersault and there you are. It slaps you in the face, knocks you down, and tramples upon you. It is like a bad dream.†(Knight 175) Charlotte Perkins Gilman was born in Hartford, Connecticut. Early in her life her parents divorced, so her father could remarry.(Wladaver) Despite family problems, she loved an intellectual environment. She studied art at the Rhode Island School of Design, where she met herRead MoreAnalysis Of The Yellow Wallpaper1727 Words   |  7 Pages Analysis of the Short Story The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. Originally published in January 1892 issue of New England Magazine. Charlotte Perkins Gilman s short story The Yellow Wallpaper was personal to her own struggles with anxiety and depression after the birth of her daughter with her first husband and S. Weir Mitchell s resting cure treatment she received. The Yellow Wallpaper describes, from the patients point of view, the fall into madness of a woman who is creativelyRead More Critical Analysis of The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins1179 Words   |  5 PagesCritical Analysis of The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† is a detailed account of the author’s battle with depression and mental illness. Gilman’s state of mental illness and delusion is portrayed in this narrative essay. Through her account of this debilitating illness, the reader is able to relate her behavior and thoughts to that of an insane patient in an asylum. She exhibits the same typeRead More Oppression of Women in Chopins Story of an Hour and Gilmans Yellow Wallpaper 1246 Words   |  5 PagesOppression of Women in Chopins Story of an Hour and Gilmans Yellow Wallpaper    The Story of an Hour by Kate Chopin and The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman share the same view of the subordinate position of women in the late 1800s. Both stories demonstrate the devastating effects on the mind and body that result from an intelligent person living with and accepting the imposed will of another. This essay will attempt to make their themes apparent by examining a brief summeryRead MoreThe Yellow Wallpaper By Charlotte Perkins1189 Words   |  5 PagesAubi-Ann Genus Ms.Vedula 4 December 2015 â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† a Feminist Story â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† by Charlotte Perkins Gillman focuses on the oppression of women in the 19th century. The story introduces us into the awareness of a woman who is slowly going insane over the course of the summer. She recently just gave birth to a baby and is most likely suffering from some type of depression. Analyzing this story, we see the frustrations of women during The Victorian era. Women were manipulatedRead More Confinement in The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman1360 Words   |  6 PagesConfinement in The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman      Ã‚   Charlotte Perkins Gilmans The Yellow Wallpaper is a commentary on the male oppression of women in a patriarchal society.   However, the story itself presents an interesting look at one womans struggle to deal with both physical and mental confinement.   This theme is particularly thought-provoking when read in todays context where individual freedom is one of our most cherished rights. This analysis will focusRead MoreFeminist Analysis : The Yellow Wallpaper 2184 Words   |  9 PagesJoe Purcaro English 155 Literary Analysis 04/17/2016 Feminism in the Yellow Wallpaper Everyone experiences life, whether it be happy times, bad times; it’s one big circle every human being goes through. In the story, â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper, which is a feminist story that portrays the terror of the rest cure which is a period spent in inactivity or leisure with the intention of improving one s physical or mental health. Women especially, as it opposes manyRead MoreSymbolism Of A Street Car Named Desire And The Yellow Wallpaper1487 Words   |  6 PagesSymbolism of One’s True Nature in A Street Car Named Desire and â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† What is humanity s true nature? Are people basically good, or basically evil? Over the centuries, many people have tried to find the answers to these questions, to no avail. Author Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Tennessee Williams take a definite stance on the issues throughout their work, arguing that people are basically evil hiding their truths. Many times, this theme is obviously stated in the stories, but sometimesRead MoreThe Yellow Wallpaper: Male Oppression of Women in Society1313 Words   |  6 PagesThe Yellow Wallpaper: Male Oppression of Women in Society Charlotte Perkins Gilmans The Yellow Wallpaper is a commentary on the male oppression of women in a patriarchal society. However, the story itself presents an interesting look at one womans struggle to deal with both physical and mental confinement. This theme is particularly thought-provoking when read in todays context where individual freedom is one of our most cherished rights. This analysis will focus on two primary issues: 1)

Older Clients Essay - 8017 Words

Patricia Moore 1260239100 HLTEN515B Older Clients Assessment 2 Aged Care 2 P/T November group L 26 April 2013 HLTEN515B Assessment 2 – Short Answer Questions Student Name Student Number Date Instructions: Please answer the following questions in a new Word doc and upload to my.TAFE on completion. There is no word limit on each question, however please ensure you answer the question thoroughly and reference where you sourced your information from. You may be asked to resubmit specific questions if you do not answer them in enough detail. Please ensure you refer to the APA Referencing Guide located in your Study Utilities on my.TAFE. Each answer must contain APA style in-text referencing. Your†¦show more content†¦Low care residences provide the level of support that you need or require to continue to live as independently as possible. Low care includes accommodation, meals, laundry and 24 hour on-call staff support. (Australian Government department of health ageing ,2011b) d) Is respite offered in either type of care? Yes Respite care is for individuals who still live at home with a carer Services can be either in the clients home, in their community, at Blue Care Centre-based respite facilities or in our residential aged care facilities. Cottage overnight emergency accommodation is available in some areas. In-home respite focuses on lifestyle activities, assistance with light household duties, personal care, shopping and meal preparation, as well as support in social activities. Through centre-based respite, clients attend day programs that may include excursions, outdoor or indoor activities or holiday programs. Trained respite workers undertake client assessments. Needs-based programs are then developed with clients and their carers to enhance quality of life and provide opportunities for community contact. They also coordinate carer support groups to provide an opportunity for carers to meet other carers, and to offer social support and encouragement for those who are requiring encouragement. Respite care is provided for various reasons, including: postShow MoreRelatedImplement And Monitor Nursing Care For Older Clients1795 Words   |  8 PagesDiploma of Nursing HLT51612 HLTEN515B Implement and monitor nursing care for older clients Assessment 2 – Case Study Elements 4 5 - Part 1 – Alcohol Related Dementia - Korsakoff’s syndrome Definition: â€Å"Korsakoff’s psychosis, a form of amnesia often seen in chronic alcoholics that is characterised by a loss of short- term memory and an inability to learn new skills. The person is usually disoriented, mat present with delirium and hallucinations, and confabulates to concealRead MoreWorking As An Older Therapist With A Younger Client Can1930 Words   |  8 PagesWorking as an older therapist with a younger client can have a degree of an advantage in terms of life experience. Adolescent pressures are a universal occurrence; the desire to conform with peers, to not be different and feeling as though they are not understood. Meanwhile, a therapist who feels discomfort when working with certain disorders coupled with inappropriate disclosure can cause misunderstandings within the relationship and hinder therapy. Working with difference, the need for understandingRead MoreFall Risks Of The Older Adult Client And Nursing Interventions1234 Words   |  5 Pagesthe Older Adult Client and Nursing Interventions to Prevent Them Debra A. Arnold Oakland Community College Fall Risks in the Older Adult Client and Nursing Interventions to Prevent Them Many people believe that falling is a normal part of the aging process and that if a person lives long enough they will eventually suffer a fall. It is true that some of the physiological changes that occur in every older adult as a normal part of the aging process do increase an older adult’sRead MoreSubjective/Status:The Client, Her Father, And Her Older944 Words   |  4 PagesSUBJECTIVE/STATUS: The client, her father, and her older brother presented for session. The client read aloud from her journal a poem of thanking her parents. The client’s father thanked her. The client’s father stated, â€Å"I am always happy when I see Theresa.† The therapist asked the client what she wants to share today with her father and her brother about positive communication skills. The client stated, â€Å"I have no communication problem with my brother, but I have communication issues with my parentsRead MoreHlten515B Implement and Monitor Care for Older Clients: De mentia737 Words   |  3 PagesHLTEN515B implement and monitor care for older clients Written assignment 1 There are many different forms of dementia and each has its own cause. Some of the main type of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease, which is the most common form of dementia affecting 50%-70% of dementia patients (Alzheimers australia, 2005). This is a degenerative illness which attacks the brain, this is achieved buy tangles which are in the middle of shrunken brain cells and plaques which eventually cause the brain cellsRead MoreNow-a-days, people demands faster applications; also, people expect the website or app should be1600 Words   |  7 Pagespeople expect the website or app should be compatible across devices such as desktop, mobile, and tablets. Fast loading websites make people happy. Every day, new mobiles and tablets hitting the market with newer operating systems and upgrades. In older days, web designers uses the subdomain m e.g. for mobile websites, users will be automatically redirects to http://m.yourwebsite.com. However, most of the m dot websites will have a poor design aspects and always clutters the user experience. In additionRead MoreThe Nurses Decision And The Factors That Go Into Ambulating Older Clients During Hospitalization2215 Words   |  9 PagesThe three studies to be discussed describe what goes behind the nurses’ decision and the factors that go into ambulating older clients during hospitalization, as well as the relationship between mobility levels and functional outcome that they experience. In order to prevent the client’s mobility level from declining, it is important to know how to make decisions to move clients, what subjective factors may influence their physical function, and how decreased mobility levels has the ability to leadRead MoreA Wide Array Of Risk Factors For Risk Among Older Client With Type 2 Diabete s936 Words   |  4 PagesAmong a wide array of risk factors for falls among older client with type 2 diabetes are the use of multiple medications, excess muscle weakness, especially at the ankle, and a host of environmental factors. Specific factors that significantly heighten risk among many with type2 diabetes are the presence of motor and/or sensory neuropathy, which increases the displacement of the center of pressure recordings during static balance tests in a dose dependent manner, the use of insulin, vision impairmentsRead MoreDatabase Design Essay examples1204 Words   |  5 Pageswith their artist information (phone number, amount owed to the artist, painting the artist gave to the museum, ect). Without the database all of this information could be easily lost or misplaced if it was all stored on a piece of paper like in the older days. Or if the building burnt down they would also lose all this valuable information. When it is stored in a database it can be kept in a separate location and even kept offline to make sure it wasn’t hacked or the information wasn’t manipulatedRead MoreThin Client Computer Lab Paper7325 Words   |  30 PagesDvorak Technology Academy Thin Client Computer Lab Project Submitted by James I. Davis jd@gocatgo.com TIE-532 November 30, 2008 Thin Client Computer Lab Project - page 2 Thin Client Computer Lab Project Introduction Computers are an integral part of 21st century life, and as such technology education is recognized as part of the Illinois Learning Standards (ISBE, 2008). A computer lab is an efficient way to deliver access to computers and the Internet to students. Traditional labs, like

Cross Culture Free Essays

string(51) " hinder what are otherwise promising partnerships\." Introduction: Introduction Communication is the process by which information is transmitted between individuals and/or organizations so that an understanding response results. Simply we can say, Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more person. The transmission of the sender’s ideas to the receiver and the receiver’s feedback or reaction to the sender constitute the communication cycle. We will write a custom essay sample on Cross Culture or any similar topic only for you Order Now SENDERRECEIVER InputOutput [pic] Feedback Brain drain Brain drain Brain drain Fig- 01: Communication Cycle Culture is an idea in the field of management which describes the psychology, attitudes, experiences, beliefs and values (personal and cultural values) of an organization. Culture is a complex concept. In other words, culture is central to what we see, how we make sense of what we see, and how we express ourselves. Objective of the Report: The Primary Objective of this report is to analysis of cross cultural communication in IBM. The report has accumulated information to know about company’s cross cultural communication, to find out its positive and productive communication in their organization and does the work effectively. Methodology: Sources of data: †¢ Secondary Data: All the data and information are collected from secondary sources. Cross-Cultural Communication: The success of a business depends on its ability to communicate. Communication serves as the medium for instruction, assessment, interpersonal relationships, group interactions and all other interaction that takes place in business. With globalization, business is no longer constrained within the boundaries of a single country. Large business organizations have corporate offices in different parts of the world. They need to communicate in order to promote coordination. Also in multinational companies people from different parts of the world are employed. The way an individual communicates, is influenced by his or her culture. Hence in today’s increasing global economy, it is important for managers and employees at all levels to understand, appreciate, and manage the impact of cross-cultural communication in the workplace. As our world grows, expands and becomes increasingly more interconnected by various technological advances, the need for effective communication among various cultures is increasing. People from different backgrounds tend to perceive information differently. Hence, misinterpretation of information can lead to conflict. Cross cultural communication is of great importance through out the world. Though in our country, due to the lack of cultural diversity, cross cultural communication is not treated with that much importance. But still with the advancement of technology we have to interact with businesspeople in faraway countries and for this we need know about effective techniques of cross cultural communication Definition of Cross-Cultural Communication: To understand cross cultural communication first we need to know what culture is. Culture refers to a group or community with which we share common experiences that shape the way we understand the world. Cross-cultural communication looks at how people, from differing cultural backgrounds, endeavor to communicate. It is more frequently referred to as Intercultural communication. (Ramsey, 1999). Culture refers to all the knowledge and values shared by a society. The word culture is often considered in terms of nationality or one’s country of origin. Other more specific distinguishing characteristics of culture are region, orientation, socioeconomic status, gender, sexual orientation and preference, age, marital and parental status. Another approach to understanding the concept of culture involves the beliefs, values and norms that exist to guide an individual’s behaviors in solving common problems. Culture is the acquired knowledge people use to interpret experience and generate behavior (Porter, 1991). Culture is the shared customs, beliefs, and social structures that make up a society, including languages, rules, myths, family patterns, and political systems. (Boone et al. 1997). Cross cultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual processing tool with which people from different cultures create shared meanings (Berko et al. , 1997). When we speak to someone with whom we share little or no cultural bond, it is referred to as cross cultural communication. Our need to communicate across cult ure can be very beneficial personally and professionally. Within an intercultural setting, nonverbal and verbal communications are both prevalent in emphasizing the differences in cultures. The way we act and the things we say determine whether or not we belong in a certain culture. Nonverbal communication systems provide information about the meaning associated with the use of space, time, touch and gestures. They help to define the boundaries between the members and nonmembers of a culture (Hofstede, 1991). Hence, Cross Cultural Communication is the communication that takes place among people from different cultures. Cross cultural communication does not only mean face to face communication it includes all forms of written and oral communication. History of Cross-Cultural Communication: The need for Cross-Cultural communication was felt with the spread of global commerce. It is very tough to get the specific date when cross-cultural communication started. Initial initiatives in cross-cultural communication were taken in different countries in different time period. One of the pioneers of the computer industry, IBM started cross cultural communication in 1953. It was introduced by the CEO of that time Thomas J. Watson Jnr. According to Thomas it was the policy of IBM to hire talented people regardless of race, color and background. During 1978-83, the Dutch cultural anthropologist Geert Hofstede conducted detailed interviews with hundreds of IBM employees in 53 countries. Through standard statistical analysis of fairly large data sets, he was able to determine patterns of similarities and differences among the replies. In the year 1991, Geert Hofstede undertook the first global studies on how a specific business culture, at the time one of the most widely distributed companies, interacted with the local cultures of some 39 different countries. Another professional development initiative is IBM’s Shade of blues – a more in-depth program for managers who are engaged in cross-cultural business interactions or have multicultural teams. Recent Research on Cross-Cultural Communication: As people from different cultural groups take on the exciting challenge of working together, cultural values sometimes conflict. We can misunderstand each other, and react in ways that can hinder what are otherwise promising partnerships. You read "Cross Culture" in category "Papers" Oftentimes, we aren’t aware that culture is acting upon us. Sometimes, we are not even aware that we have cultural values or assumptions that are different from others. One of the major barriers in business communication is cultural diversity. Many communication researchers are trying to find out new and effective ways to improve cross cultural communication. In many cases patients face problems with both translation difficulties and not being able to see the type clearly. As a result they are sometimes unable to take their prescriptions correctly. Many of the pharmaceuticals around the world have been trying to solve this problem. Recently they have come up with a tool which can print instructions for taking medicine in 11 different languages on the prescription bottle labels. Patients no longer have to depend on translation from a friend or relative to make sure they are taking their prescriptions correctly. The languages include English, Spanish, French, Arabic, Korean, Chinese, Japanese, Hindi, Polish, Russian or Portuguese. The tool is also equipped to print a 20- point type versus the typical smaller type, for those patients who prefer larger printed labels on the bottle labels to easily identify their medicines and how to take them. On July 6, 2005 Mark Nash, an American entrepreneur created a cross-cultural website created especially for non-resident Indians and offshore call center personnel (Nash, 2005). The website www. intro2america. om was designed to provide information about American culture. It was also designed to provide information to call center personnel who speak with Americans on a daily basis as part of their job responsibilities. The site is designed to make the transition to American lifestyle easier and reduce the difficulties misunderstandings upon first moving to the States. The site provides useful information, which is related specifically to cross-cultural types of issues. Moving from an Asian culture to a Western culture can be challenging. The site was designed for the specific purpose of easing the transition to American way of life, for those who are moving to the United States (See Appendix for the sample of the website). To serve customers from diversified cultures, they have taken a great deal of effort and time to analyze what their customers around the globe want. To achieve this they are trying to understand their customer’s behavior, cultural and spending patterns when they fly with Malaysia Airlines. The airliner has successfully catered to the demands of wide variety global customers around the world. Application in the work place: IBM, the leading business organization in computer sector, has a huge diverse workforce from the very beginning. They have concentration to manage the cross cultural communication among these employees. Here we have selected IBM’s Australia branch to present as an example of cross cultural environment where employees are working together with their cultural differences. IBM has developed their cross-cultural program based on the legal requirements of Anti- Discrimination Act Racial Discrimination Act and corporate values. IBM’s policies on cultural diversity are based on years of corporate experience. It is a long-held view that by valuing diversity, it uncovers new perspectives, taps different knowledge and experience and generates innovative ideas, suggestions and methods. Three pillars that are in place to make up IBM’s diversity strategy are: †¢ Creating a work/life balance: Their strategy is to find the average working age of general Australians through statistical findings and fix age limit for average Australians. †¢ Advancement of women: They think women should contribute more to the workplace. So, they encourage participation of women. †¢ Integration of people with a disability: IBM authority thinks that they have a social responsibility for physically and mentally disable people. The authority always tries to create some opportunity of employment for those people. IBM’s most effective diversity programs combine ‘push and pull’ strategies. They have made good headway through company-led, top down practices such as formalized training or policies like floating cultural holidays. However, IBM’s progress comes about through the contributions by individuals who are passionate about diversity issue. Aside from IBM’s diversity team within human resources, three other groups within IBM have formally identified roles in the implementation of the company’s overall diversity strategy. These are IBM’s Diversity Council, diversity contact officers and diversity champions. The Diversity Council The main objective of the IBM’s Diversity Council, is to ensure that the contribution of employees from different background is properly encouraged and valued. Its key objectives are to enhance employee awareness, increase management awareness, and encourage the effective use of IBM’s diverse workforce. This is achieved through personal commitment, regular communication, by gaining support for the program from other IBM managers and influencing decision making. Under the guidance of the Diversity Council, a series of cultural diversity employee roundtables have been held to gather more face-to-face feedback and ideas from staff. These meetings have generated many practical ideas for increasing awareness of cultural diversity within IBM. Professional development IBM has a professional development program. The objective of this program is to ensure that the employees within the organization can identify and remove psychological barriers of diverse workforce and communicate effectively. The main focuses of this program are: †¢ Understanding the cultural bias of each team member and their impact on mutualperceptions. †¢ Determine the reasons why certain behaviors and communication styles fail in somecultures. †¢ Identifying approaches to address cultural gaps that could lead to misunderstandings. †¢ Handling issues about team decision-making, giving or receiving feedback and conflict resolution. Findings: IBM, One of the pioneers of the computer industry started cross cultural communication in 1953. †¢ They think women should contribute more to the workplace. So, they encourage participation of women. †¢ IBM authority thinks that they have a social responsibility for physically and mentally disable people. The authority always tries to create some opportunit y of employment for thosepeople. Recommendations: Considering research and the case of IBM, we have some recommendation here which will decrease discrimination and increase production by making the flow of cross-cultural communication fluent. Those recommendations are as follows: ? IBM should compare their policy for cross cultural communication with others, so that they can get some new ideas to implement in their organization. It will help them to update existing policies as well. ? Not only the HR department of IBM, but also all other employees of the organization should be involved in the process of making cross cultural communication easier. It will help the whole organization to become a good team. ? Training and raising awareness can improve mentality of the employees towards others. They will learn to respect and honor others differences. Place people from different cultures as team leaders. If diverse employees get opportunity to work and share success they will be highly motivated. Discrimination will be dissolved from them and the communication process will work freely. ? A good idea can be to focus different segments one after another so that every segment can achieve expected mentality. This process will form unity and emotion among the employees of the organization. Discrimination will be terminated and the total organization will work as one body. ? Each program introduced in the organization should honor the basic values of the organization. Every program should ensure that none of the employees are discriminated in terms of race, national origin or religion. Conclusion: From the above research we have seen that cultural communication plays a vital role for effective communication for companies around the globe. In our country due to the lack of cultural diversity we do not have to face the problems related to intercultural communication. Many of the successful companies having corporate offices have been able to coordinate their activities through out the world through the successful implementation of cross cultural communication. One of the fore runners in this sector is definitely IBM. IBM has independent division to come up with new policies and strategies to improve cross cultural communication in the workplace. Reference: Boone, L. E. , Kurtz, D. L. , Block, Judy R. (1997). Contemporary Business Communication (2nd ed. ). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentince-Hall. 67. Ramsey, James (1999). Available: http://encyclopedia. localcolorart. com/encyclopedia/Cross-cultural_communication/ (July, 17 2005). Carbaugh, D, (1990). Cultural Communication and Intercultural Contact. New York: Pergamon Press. 19. Berko, R. , Rosengeld, L. , Samovar, L. (1997). Connecting: A Culture Sensitive Approach to Intercultural Communication. Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt Brace. 121. Porter, R. , and Samovar, L. (1991). Communication Between Cultures. Belmont:NTC Publishing Group. 273. Payne, C. (2001). Culture and Communication. Available: http://www2. mhc. ab. ca/users/cpayne/portfolio/cultcomm/default. htm (July, 29 2005). A ppendix [pic] A sample website dedicated to understanding cross-cultural types of issues. [pic] ———————– Idea Letter, Fax, Phone call, E-mail etc. Idea How to cite Cross Culture, Papers Cross Culture Free Essays Improving the efficiency of Japanese-American Seating Inc. Students: Shi SU (Roy) 2807992 Azam Hayat Bosan 2879742 Jiale Chen (Carlos) 2804167 Subject: International Business – Cross Cultural Management – 7928IBA Date: 24th April 2013 Word Count: Executive summary – 242words Report – 3246words Executive Summary In 1987, Banting Seat Corporation and Kasai formed a 35-65 joint venture, Japanese-American Seating Inc. (JASI) in Canada. We will write a custom essay sample on Cross Culture or any similar topic only for you Order Now This report analyses the key management issues which influencing the company’s high-efficiency production. Our report identifies three management issues. First, JASI was producing under â€Å"kanban† system. This system was relatively new in North America. Cooperation from suppliers and workers would be necessary for this system. However, due to some historical and cultural difference, JASI was not adaptive enough to â€Å"kanban† system. As a result, unfamiliarity with â€Å"kanban† system was weakening JASI’s efficiency of production. Secondly, decision-making is an important part for any business organization which make organization going. As a joint-venture, Japanese and American have significant difference in their decision-making environment. In Japanese culture, decisions are made by upper level. While in American culture, decisions are taken from down to up. The cultural difference is making the process of decision-making slow and weakening the efficiency of organization. Third, despite there is still some different opinion between Japanese managers and American managers, as the reason of the conflict of their different culture of the hierarchy, JASI has already decided to hire a project administrator. the more time JASI spend on this management issue the less time they can use to solve other issues, and this leads to the reduction in company’s efficiency. After the managment issues analysis we came to the conclusion and some effective recommendations. Table of Contents: Title page†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1 Executive Summary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2 Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 5 Purpose†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Scope†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5 Case background†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5 Outline †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 6 Key management issues †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 7 Implementation of â€Å"kanban† system†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 7 Efficiency of decision making weakening JASI’s performance†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 0 Project coordinator†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 14 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 18 Summary of recommendation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 20 Appendix†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 21 Reference†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 22 Introduction Purpose Based on the operating situation of Japanese American Seating Inc. (JASI), this report will identify three management issues which are weakening the efficiency of JASI. In order to improve JASI’s efficiency, recommended solutions to these issues will be given as well. Scope During our analysis we have been careful to consider that Japan and America are significantly different with regard to culture. These differences are reflected not only between countries, but also conflicts between Japanese and North American managers of JASI. There may be other management issues in JASI but this report will only focus on three issues that related to the efficiency. Moreover, the recommendations in this report are solutions for current issues. Case background For maintaining Banting Seat Corporation’s position of leadership in the automobile seating industry and expanding Kasai’s products overseas, these two companies formed a 35-65 joint venture, Japanese-American Seating Inc. (JASI), to exclusively supply seats on a JIT basis to Orion Manufacturing Corporation in 1987 and the plant was located in Canada. At the start-up period, the problem that JASI faced was caused by its production system, â€Å"kanban† system. This Japanese production system was considerably new in North America and it needed skilled workers and cooperation from suppliers. However, JASI did not get these supports so it was weakening the efficiency of production. After Needham took the position of general manager, the conflict between Japanese managers and North American managers appeared. Department managers were Japanese and they were looking for consensus when they made decisions. Nevertheless, it was hard to get to. As a result, this issue made the decision-making process of JASI considerably long. It was weakening JASI’s efficiency of making decisions. Japanese managers claimed that the company should hire a project coordinator who was able to make new projects smoother, less costly and better quality. Needham did not agree because this position would increase budget and the responsibility of project coordinator could be separated into pieces, then handled by different employees in the company. This issue was weakening the efficiency of decision-making as well because there were some problems, which were more important, need to be settled and it increased the conflict between department managers and general manager. Outline These three issues will be separated. In relating to JASI and comparing perspectives of history, culture and character between Japanese and North American, analysis of each issue will be given respectively. Following the analysis, solutions and recommendations will also be found. Key management issues Implementation of â€Å"kanban† system Analysis JASI adopted the JIT production system known as â€Å"kanban†. However, since it was a new production model at that time in North America, workers and suppliers were not familiar with this model. As a consequence, JASI was not producing in the expected way and thus, the efficiency of production was weakened. There were three reasons for this issue. The first reason was Japanese and American companies adopted kanban system in different time. JIT was originated in Japan by the Toyota motor company in 1950s (Beasley n. d. ). The philosophy of JIT system is producing â€Å"only what is needed, when is needed, and in the amount needed† (Just-in-Time n. d. ). For meeting the requirement of JIT, kanban system was generated. Kanban system is a classic tool to achieve Just-In–Time production and the core value of JIT is the core value of kanban system. Kanban system helped Toyota become a world-class and successful vehicle manufacturer in the world. After the success of Toyota, kanban system spread to other Japanese companies (A Brief History 2005). However, kanban system, as well as the philosophy of JIT, was introduced into America in 1980s (Aycock 2003). American companies started to conduct under kanban system approximately 30 years later than Japanese companies. As a result, at the time the joint venture was formed, American companies were beginners of kanban system. The second reason was the different philosophy to achieve cost control between Japanese and American enterprises. Due to the abundant resources of North American, companies held the believe that mass production was the effective way to reduce cost (Chandler 1977). Mass production is able to reduce the fixed cost of every product so the unit cost decreases. In contrast with North America, Japan is a country that is lacking of natural resources. This situation determines that mass production is not suitable for Japanese companies. This was why Toyota recognized that copying American model was not appropriate for them and generated kanban system. The core value of JIT are minimizing inventory and maximizing quality. In this way, waste of production minimizing and cost decreases naturally. The third reason is the different culture between Japanese and North American. Kanban system requires a lot of training, for workers and suppliers. Workers need to monitor inventory levels and suppliers need to operate under JIT principles. In a word, clients, manufacturers and suppliers have to cooperate as a whole team. Kanban was easier to be adopted in Japan because Japanese character is featured by cooperation and obedience (Ishida 1974). Unlike Japanese, North American is more independent and this was why Nomura found it difficult to persuade North American suppliers to operate in JIT model. Solutions Two possible solutions are identified: 1. JASI stopped adopting the kanban system and switch to the mass production model or, 2. JASI insisted on operating under kanban system. Whereas, JASI offered trainings to workers and suppliers to help them to be more adaptive to kanban system. Recommendation It is recommended that JASI should insist on operating under JIT basis. Since most managers were from Japan, they were familiar with the kanban system. In consequence, it would be easier for them to manage the company under a familiar system. Moreover, Kasai Kogyo Ltd was the bigger share holder of JASI, so they would hardly change the production model. Thirdly, JASI was the exclusive supplier on a JIT basis to Orion Manufacturing Corporation. If JASI was not producing under JIT principle, it might not be able to deliver the required products to Orion or increase the risk of high inventory. Actually, as the deepening of product diversification, mass production would not be flexible enough to meet the requirement of vehicle manufacturing industry. In contrast, kanban system is able to produce small batches of goods with low cost. In a word, kanban system would be more suitable for vehicle industry in the future. For implementing the kanban system, cooperation of workers and suppliers is vital. Skilled workers help to reduce defects. Defects increase the cost of JASI while high quality is the core value of JIT. As a result, negotiations with Canadian Auto Workers (CAW) would be very important during this period. Negotiation strategy needed to be carefully prepared in order to avoid the loss of skilled workers. In terms of suppliers, training would be necessary. It was necessary for JASI’s suppliers to recognize the concept and the core value of kanban system and JIT. JASI could compare mass production and JIT production and point out the future and advance of kanban system. In other words, JASI needed to persuade suppliers that they were able to benefit by operating under kanban system. Efficiency of decision making weakening JASI’s performance Analysis First of all significant difference in the decision making process of American and Japanese is because both countries have different culture background and those culture difference are reflected in their communication and decision making process Richard (Pascale t Richard 1978). Because of the different culture background there have different management system or different working environment, for example American prefer individualism (country individualism 2009) and Japanese prefer collectivist (country collectivism 2009), American prefer informal and Japanese prefer formal. Japanese culture is formal. With its historical background, hierarchy prefer (Country hierarchy 2009) slow decision and formal communication. Japanese do their work in prescribed way after thinking a lot in that matter. They are more dependent on each other and study suggests that amongst Japanese people there is much more harmony (country collectivism 2009). When Japanese make a decision they have many ideas from so many perspectives. In Japan there is little room for opportunity their planning is in a prescribed manner. Mostly Japanese prefer hierarchical (Country hierarchy 2009) in which there are more workers and decision making process is centralised to top position manager, everything is in their hands. Japanese people are fond of the formal way of communication and it takes time to take any decision irrespective of the value of the real time. American is informal, less hierarchy (Country hierarchy 2009), fast decision and Informal communication. Americans are less conservative and usually saves time and make their decision so quickly. They have narrow span of control they don’t have centralised decision making they are more inclined towards decentralization in which they distribute the responsibility to their lower staff as well. They encourage innovation and new ideas and which they think will be their key assets in future. They prefer informal communication in which they use to negotiate freely to others. They don’t depend on others and want to work independently (country individualism 2009) . American and Japan have other major differences. For example, America has more resources; they don’t think too much and don’t waste time in their planning. They make quick decision after realising that it’s a best decision they will make. Japan on the other hand have, lack of resources, they have to import goods, which is a time consuming process. They don’t want to take risk in fast decision making, instead they will research any product before a deal is finalised. By Hofstede (1980, 1984, 2012) (Appendix 1), studies clearly illustrates that culture affects people’s beliefs and behaviour. The distinction in mindsets for decision making authority is the actual point in the problem of JASI’s chain of command. Mostly decision making in Japan is centralised and hence there is narrow span of control within companies. Hofstede (1980, 1984, 2012) suggests that Japan is famous for their strong hierarchy culture therefore the managers believe that JASI wants a professional manager to direct the linkage between several departments. America has dispersed its rights for any decision making to lower level of workers within any organisation. Furthermore, America is more focused towards decentralized their decisions making and pay more emphasize on providing feedback and giving recommendations and to distribute the information with the employees. Solution Given that the two decision making styles of the JASI Japanese and North American Management are quite different, it would be hard to accommodate both the methods. A good alternative to reach a solution is to formulate a middle ground between the two processes. This means finding a decision making process that is a mix of the two and at the same time takes the advantage of efficiency of the North American style and combines it with the positive team spirit and drive created by the consensus style of the Japanese. While there may be some initial resistance, in this manner, neither parties feels that their ways are being set completely aside in favour of the other and it may also foster a more cohesive unit as both decision making styles are merged. Recommendation One way to resolve this is to make use of a method of decision-making that is a voting based majority style. Here the entire team takes a vote when a decision is put forward and each person gets a single vote, if the decision manages to gain two-thirds majority vote in its favour, it is passed. If there is less than two-thirds of the majority it is then reworked and voted again, similar to the way it is done in a consensus. This acts as a midway decision-making style that falls between the North American and Japanese style. In this manner, it incorporates the consensus method of the Japanese to a certain degree but at the same time allows the North Americans to keep a certain amount of their flexibility in terms of quick decision making, since it is not everyone who has to be made amenable to the decision. The North Americans are already used to decision making through advice taken from the subordinates. The Japanese management’s consensus is only different because everyone must agree so while there are likely to have some misgivings on the matter, they will not likely find it too difficult to adjust to. Project coordinator Analysis The debate on the issue of that whether company should hire a project coordinator may likely to cause harm to efficiency of JASI. They have agreed to hire a project coordinator to launch projects and follow them through to completion, however, differences still exist. Japanese managers believe that they should expand the role of the materials department and restore its original position. They also think that as a commercial production company, a lot of responsibility of the material department has been dispersed in various other departments, and the key of a better project management is to focus on the function of the materials sector. Therefor, they strongly agreed with to hire a project coordinator. Creating such a position would mean that everyone will know the status of the ongoing projects. Moreover, it will be smoother to start a new project with low cost and better quality. However, Needham do not want to break the budget in the early stages of his inauguration. Secondly, the project coordinator as a new employee in company can not immediately into the role of coordinator to services for the company. Third, the hierarchy and the right of this position can not be easy divided in company. Last, this position is fundamentally no longer necessary. The main reason for this difference is the different culture of the hierarchy and the right in Japan and US company. Peterson (1995) think that culture and the role stress are closely linked, it often derived from a confusion of roles and always led to conflict of roles. Robert (2005) supports this notion, he think the right distance and individualism of the cultural elements are all closely linked with role stress. The hierarchy and the right problems are common in all cultures, but its value and impact showing a big range of different. According to Hofestede (1980) the hierarchy is closely linked with the cultural environment, attaches great importance to the authority tend to have a complex hierarchy structure Hofstede (1980, 1983, 2001) (Appendix 1) and Trompennars (Trompennars and Hampton-Turner, 1998, 2000) indicated that culture influences behaviours and beliefs. The difference in attitude to authority is the main point of the JASI’s hierarchy problem. In Japan, hierarchical of right is vertical highly centralized by decision-making of the company, but in United States, the hierarchical of right is diffused by every part of the company (Country hierarchy 2009). Also that Japan was the fourth country which have a strong hierarchy culture (Country hierarchy 2009), so Japanese managers think JASI need such a project coordinator to concerned the situation and coordinating the relationship between the various departments. However, the United States is inclined to neutral about hierarchy, and attaches great importance to consultation and information sharing with employees. Solutions There are a number of solutions that will address the problems in JASI. Firstly, it should first understand the true idea of the employees from different cultural backgrounds, and through discussion to appeal to different ideas, learn from each other, and then to know each other. Secondly, company can organize staff training. Staff can understand the company’s corporate culture by training in a cross-cultural company. At the same time, staff which from different cultures can share their culture towards integration of culture, which they respect and understand the culture from each other. This cultural infiltration based on a learning organization. Recommendations First of all, the company has decided to hire a project coordinator, it would have to refine the functions of this position. Manager should explained the scope of management and functions of this position to the staff. It is aim to avoid unclear or overlapping of functions so as to achieve the goal of improving the efficiency of the company. Second, company can use decision-making meeting or video conferencing which hold include Japanese managers, Needham, project coordinator, chief financial officer and other important sectors to discuss and solve the company’s current situation and problems of production to achieve the goal of increased efficiency of the company. Conclusion There are three main issues which are negatively affecting efficiency of JASI. These three issues which are, the question of the implementation of kanban, the decision-making processing at JASI and whether or not to hire a project manager at JASI. While these issues continue they are a cause of friction between the Japanese and American management which may be related to other deeper issues, but these are the particular issues that this paper was focused on. While there are multiple solutions to these issues, the recommendations are as follows. For the question on the implementation of the kanban system, which is the process that the Japanese have been using and were trying to implement in JASI, the recommendation given was to continue to implement it as it allows for greater production at lowered costs. In the case of the second issue that of the differing decision-making processes of the Japanese and American management. The Japanese management follows a consensus style of decision-making which is a lengthy and time-consuming process. The American management, on the other hand, follows a less lengthy process where they only seek advice from their subordinates before coming to a decision. The recommended method of decision-making is a voting based majority style. If there is less than two-thirds of the majority it is then reworked and voted on again, until a majority is reached. It also acts as something similar to both the North American and Japanese styles making it easier for both to adopt. The decision to hire a project manager has been made; however, there are still questions between the two managements on how best to proceed. The difference lies in that the Japanese want to expand the role of the incoming project manager while the Americans are hesitant as that would give a lot of responsibility to a new employee. Given this the best solution is to clarify the functions of the role to avoid overlaps and to initiate discussions designed to improve the efficiency of the organization as a whole. Given the implementation of these suggestions the overall efficiency of JASI is likely to improve as production and decision-making are streamlined and the organization structure and roles are more clearly defined and the company moves towards a more efficient new phase in its progress. Summary of recommendation 1. JASI should use the a method of voting which based majority. Decision will be passed when they gain two-thirds majority vote. 2. JASI should use a midway decision-making style that falls between the North American and Japanese style. 3. JASI should insist on operating under JIT basis. Kanban system is able to produce small batches of goods with low cost. 4. For implementing the kanban system, JASI should focus on cooperation of workers and suppliers. 5. JASI should refine the function of the position of project coordinator, such as scope of management. . JASI should use decision-making meeting or video conferencing which include all managers and project coordinator. Appendix: [pic] United States in comparison with Japan Source: Geert-hofstede. com/united-states. html Reference: A Brief History of (Just-in-) Time (2005), viewed 5 April 2013, http://www. strategosinc. com/just_in_time. htm Aycock, J (2003), A Brief History of Just-In-Time, ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 97 -113, viewed 4-7 April 2013, http://web. csie. cgu. edu. w/~jhchen/course/PL2/A%20brief%20history%20of%20just-in-time. pdf Beasley, J, E (n. d. ), Just-in-time (JIT), viewed 5 April 2013, http://people. brunel. ac. uk/~mastjjb/jeb/or/jit. html Chandler, A, D (1977), The visible hand: the managerial revolution in America business, Belknap Pr. Engle, Robert L. , and Melvin Prince. 2005, â€Å"The impact of role strain on work and life: A cross-cultural comparison† Insights to a Changing World Journal, (1):1-13 Hofstede, G. H. 1980, â€Å"Culture’s consequences: international differences in How to cite Cross Culture, Papers

Behavioral Treatments in Autism Essay Example For Students

Behavioral Treatments in Autism Essay B.Noncontingent Access to Preferred Stimulus Through the years since Kanner first described infantile autism, much research has amassed on different methods of treating those diagnosed with autism and the various deficits and excesses they possess. As the 1960s began, the learning theory approach to treatment gained prominence and researchers used the principles of operant learning theory to develop new behavioral treatment techniques. Behavioral excesses and deficits were viewed as operant and controlled by environmental consequences and so modification of such consequences could change the behavior excesses and deficits. As the 1970s arrived there was an increase in the amount of research in behavioral treatment of autism with a more focused approach to target behaviors and an increase in sophisticated behavioral techniques (Matson, Benavidez, Compton, Paclawskyj Baglio, 1996). This has been an area of intense research and many children have benefited as a result of the developments. However, each method has its limitations and is not always significantly effective. It is said that autism is uncritical thinking dominated by fantasies that have little or no relation to reality; the gratification of wishes and desires in imagination (Goldenson, 1970). Behavioral approaches to treating autism must account for the different levels of awareness if they are to effectively change the sometimes devastating behaviors of autistic people. Autism is a spectrum disorder with a wide range of symptoms and degrees of impairment. A person with autism lives for the most part in an isolated world unaware of the impact their behavior has on the immediate environment. Even though some may be high functioning, the majority (around 70-75%) has some amount of associated learning disabilities and about 50% score below 50 on the IQ scale. When there are profound cognitive impairments, adequate speech development is not likely, and additionally the incidence of aberrant behavior increases (Howlin, 1996). Aberrant behaviors are behavioral excesses that interfere with interaction opportunities within an individuals environment (Matson, et al., 1996). Another high impacting area of deficiency is socialization skills. This area includes decreased responding to verbal initiations of others, inappropriate affect or facial expression during communicative interactions, eye contact and preservation on the same topic even when cues are given by the partner for a topic shift (Koegel, Frea, 1993). Social skill impairment has some relation to the language impairment. Expressive and receptive language difficulties occur in a high percentage of autistic individuals. Difficulties in expressing thoughts and ideas can lead to outbursts of anxiety, aggression, and self-injurious behavior in those with low ability and therefore it is often incorporated into treatment approaches for several areas (Howlin, 1998). Treatment techniques vary widely depending on the target behavior and desired outcome. In dealing with aberrant behavior, if the behavior is extreme and destructive, then a quick end to the behavior is desired. It has been found that aversive procedures in which punishment was administered contingent on emission of the target behavior rapidly decrease aberrant behaviors. This has been criticized as unethical. Critics have tested the effectiveness of nonaversive procedures and found them to be as effective in non-life-threatening behaviors (Matson, et al., 1996). One such effective method is that of noncontingent access to preferred stimuli. In one study researchers found that presenting an autistic individual with multiple predetermined sets of preferred stimuli or rotating the sets decreased the occurrence of self-injurious behavior (DeLeon, Anders, Rodriguez-Catter, Neidert, 2000). Another method in modifying aberrant behaviors is to increase the amount of social skills as alternative behaviors. In identifying pivotal behaviors, some researchers have been able to modify one target behavior and have it result in collateral changes in other behaviors. Koegel, Koegel, Hurley, Frea (1992) reported that teaching an autistic person to respond to verbal initiations from others on a regular basis collaterally decreased the level of disruptive behavior. For some individuals the technique of self-management has been shown to be highly effective. It requires teaching of appropriate and inappropriate behavior identification as well as recording methods. It has been used to increase social skills while decreasing disruptive behavior (Matson, et al., 1996). .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10 , .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10 .postImageUrl , .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10 , .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10:hover , .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10:visited , .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10:active { border:0!important; } .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10:active , .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10 .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u27ce0190b0f562049c5623d496eb2a10:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Canadas first female Prime Minister Essay In social skills it has been shown that some behaviors taught generalize well to other untreated behaviors (Koegel, 1993), however, it has proved more difficult to .